A Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) is designed to provide both workers and emergency personnel with the proper procedures for handling or working with a particular substance. MSDS’s include information such as physical data (melting point, boiling point, flash point etc.), toxicity, health effects, first aid, reactivity, storage, disposal, protective equipment, andspill/leak procedures. These are of particular use if a spill or other accident occurs.
Who are they for?
MSDS’s are meant for:
Employees who may be occupationally exposed to a hazard at work.
Employers who need to know the proper methods for storage etc.
Emergency responders such as fire fighters, hazardous material crews, emergency medical technicians, and emergency room personnel.
MSDS’s are not meant for consumers. An MSDS reflects the hazards of working with the material in an occupational fashion. For example, an MSDS for paint is not highly pertinent to someone who uses a can of paint once a year, but is extremely important to someone who does this in a confined space 40 hours a week.
The above information was gathered here
Great site and good information. Highly recommend a visit.
So who needs them?
If you are working in a facility of just about any kind (e.g. hospice center, hospital, spa, etc) AND are storing essential oils there, then you need to have MSDS sheets on file, just in case.
How do you get them?
Typically the company you purchase essential oils from should have MSDS sheets for each of their oils, after all, the companies themselves would need to have them at their storage facility anyhow.
What does a MSDS sheet look like for an essential oil?
Material Safety Data Sheet: Oil of Lavender
Section I: Identification
Manufacturer Name: COMPANY NAME
Address: ADDRESS, AB TEL NUMBER
Chemical name and synonyms: Oil of Lavender
Trade names and synonyms: Lavandula angustifolia
CAS number: 8000-28-0
FEMA number: 2622
Section II: Composition
Kind of product: Essential oil, Natural complex substance (100% pure and natural), Fragrant and/or flavor substance
Section III: Hazards Identification
Main Hazards: Irritating and Dangerous for Environment
Danger: Flammable, May cause irritation to the skin, may cause sensitization by skin contact, toxic to aquatic organisms.
Section IV: First Aid Measures
Excessive Inhalation Exposure: Remove person to ventilated area or open fresh air and follow normal First Aid procedures.
Eye: Wash eyes by normal First Aid procedures. Flush with water (and/or vegetable oil) and seek medical attention if necessary.
Skin Contact: Remove contaminated clothing. Wash with soap and water
Other: Ingestion – drink water, seek medical advice.
Section V: Fire Fighting Measures
Flash Point Closed Cup Method: 159.8° F
Extinguishing Media: Recommended Carbon dioxide (CO2) or powder fire extinguisher, Foam extinguisher. AVOID direct jet of water.
Dot Hazard Classification: None
Special Fire Fighting and Explosion Hazards: Cool containers exposed to flame with water. Avoid exposure to fumes and vapors. If necessary, use appropriate respirator.
Hazardous Combustible of Decomposition Products: None. Material is not pyrophoric, does not react with water, not an oxygen donor, material is shock stable
Section VI: Accidental Release Measures
Individual precautions: Avoid all flammable sources. Ventilate premises. Do not smoke. Use individual protective equipment (safety glasses, waterproof-boots, suitable protective clothing) in case of major spillages.
Precaution for Environment: Avoid contamination in sewers, surface water and underground water. Get rid of cloths, sponges, other material spillage occurred on, etc.
Cleaning methods: Remove all potential ignition sources. Contain spilled material. Cover for spillages: with an inert or non-combustible inorganic absorbent material, sweep up and remove to an approved disposal container. Observe state, federal & local disposal regulations.
Section VII: Handling and Storage
Store in Cool dry area in closed containers. Do not expose to temperatures over 95 degrees F.
Section VIII: Exposure Controls/Personal Protection
Respiratory: As with all materials, avoid casual breathing of vapors. Use in well ventilated area.
Ventilation: Local Exhaust is recommended to avoid casual breathing of vapors
Eye: Use OSHA approved safety glasses
Skin: Wear gloves or clothing to avoid skin contact
Other Protective Devices or Procedures: Follow Good Manufacturing Practice, provide adequate ventilation.
Threshold Limit Value (TLV): None established
OSHA Permissible Exposure Limit: None established
Section IX: Physical and Chemical Properties
Odor Appearance and Physical State: Colorless to light yellow liquid with fresh floral herbaceous aroma
Boiling Point: Not available
Melting Point: Liquid
Specific Gravity (at 68° F): 0.880 to 0.890
Vapor pressure: Not Found
Solubility in H2O: Insoluble
Vapor Density (Air = 1): Greater than air
Refractive index at 68°F: 1.450 to 1. 464
Optical rotation at 68°F: 10.3° to 19.4°
Section X: Stability and Reactivity
Stability: Stable under normal conditions
Conditions to avoid: Excessive heat, remove sources of ignition, do not expose to direct sun.
Materials to avoid: Strong oxidizing agents, P.V.C.
Hazardous Polymerization Products: None
Section XI: Toxicological Information
Oral ingestion: DL org 50 for rat: >= 2650 mg/kg
Dermal absorption: non-toxic, non-photosenitizing
Section XII: Ecological Information
Aquatic toxicity: very toxic to aquatic organisms
Prevent surface contamination of soil, ground & surface water.
Section XIII: Disposal Considerations
Precaution if Material is Spilled or Released: Small spills wipe up with paper towels and place contaminated items in closed metal waste container; for large spills use non-flammable absorbent cloth and dispose in same manner.
Waste Disposal Methods: Follow Local, State, and Federal Laws
Section XIV: Transport Information
Comply with local and federal dangerous goods regulations.
Section XV: Regulatory Information
Generally recognized as safe as food additives by the FDA. Main hazards: possible irritant to skin and toxic to aquatic organisms.
Section XVI: Other Information
Important phrases: Flammable, Irritant to skin, very toxic to aquatic organisms, may cause lung damage if swallowed.
Found some rather interesting footage about Rene Maurice Gattefosse. Here are three videos that outline Gattefosse’s life and experience with aromatherapy. Fascinating. Enjoy.
Cardamom: Queen of Spices
Walk gently upon the earth
Falling in love with Cardamom this Autumn Season! When I smell cardamom I feel transported to a place between heaven and earth where my feet touch the earth gently and my mind feels clear and light. It ignites a feeling of attraction, compassion, and kindness. There is a natural warming love which emanates from the self within and gently spreads its wings out to others. The way the cardamom pods grow close to the ground yet remain above it reminds me of being rooted yet not so securely that movement is not possible. The imagery also speaks to me of walking firmly yet gently and lightly upon the earth. – Jade Shutes
Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) is a leafy perennial herb with hairless leaves neatly arranged along thick fleshy stalks. The attractive flowers are borne at ground level on much-branched flowering stems and they develop into small green, white or brown three-valved capsules, each containing several brown seeds. (Van wyk and Wink)
Cardamom is native to the moist evergreen forests of western Ghats of southern India and has been highly valued as a spice since Ancient times.
The name Elettaria is derived from the root Elettari, which in the popular South Indian language Tamil, means granules of leaf. Cardamom is a member of the Zingiberaceae family which includes over 48 genera and 1200 species including ginger and turmeric. The Zingiberaceae family is a highly aromatic family of plants, with most being prized for their exotic spicy aromas and tastes.
The Elettaria genus has about 7 species although E. cardamomon is the only one considered to be of economic importance. Three varieties of E. cardamomom are recognized: 1/ Malabar characterized by prostrate panicle, 2/ Mysore characterized by erect panicle and 3/Vazhukka which is considered to be a natural hybrid between the two. According to several sources, the Mysore variety is known to contain elevated levels of cineol and limonene. This means that this cardamom has a stronger aroma to it.
Elettaria cardamomum is also called small cardamom to distinguish it from large cardamom which is a different species altogether. Large cardamom is obtained from Amonum subulatum, a species native to Arabia and Syria. Amonum subulatum is commonly referred to as Black cardamom or Greater cardamom and is said to have a much higher cineole content that Elettaria cardamomum, upwards of 70% or more.
HISTORY
The history of Indian spices dates back to the beginning of the human civilization. Spices were inducements for war, voyages, expeditions, and romance and in shaping the course of world events and history. (Korikanthimathm, et al) Cardamon has been used as a medicine and in cooking since ancient times. It enjoys a long and fascinating history dating back to Vedic times, about 3000 years B.C.. The Charaka Samhita and Susrutha Samhita, the ancient Indian Ayurvedic texts, written in the post-Vedic period (1400-1600 BC) make mention of cardamom. Assyrians and Babylonians were also familiar with the uses of cardamom.
Theophrastus, far to the west in Greece, is able to report in 310 BC of cardamom and amomon that ‘some say they come from Iran, others from India, like spikenard and so many other aromatics’. He lists cardamom – and not amomum – among the plant aromatics that were used for perfumes, adding that it was especially suitable for combining with the aroma of cypress. (Dalby)
Spices were the symbols of royalty and luxury and cardamom was used in the manufacture of perfumes during the Greek and Roman times. (Prabhakaran Nair)
I shall keep this section brief as there is much to cover. To learn more about the history of cardamon see reference section.
Current world producers of cardamom include: India, Malaysia, Indonesia and Guatemala
AN AROMATIC EXPERIENCE
Purchase some organic cardamom pods from a local natural food store or order from Banyan Herbs or Mountain Rose Herbs. **You may want to go ahead and order 4 ounces as this is a wonderful spice to utilize throughout the year and particularly through the winter months. Have your cardamom essential oil out as well.
Take some time to create a sacred moment in your day to sit quietly to experience cardamom.
As you sit in this place take a cardamom pod and gently break open to release the seeds. Place a seed in your mouth, keeping it towards the front teeth and gently bite into the seed. Experience the sensation of cooling yet warming and also the spice note that is released. Experience the aroma in the back of the throat that seemingly extends into the nose. Taste the eucalyptol/camphor notes that are also released. Then swallow the seed bits.
After a few moments, sit with the essential oil of cardamom. Hold a bottle of the oil a few inches from your nose or use a smell strip (whichever you prefer), close your eyes and slowly inhale through the nose. Place one drop on the back of your hand and then lick off, tasting the essential oil of cardamom.
What differences do you note? How did smelling the dried cardamom seeds enhance your perceptions of the cardamom essential oil? How did the essential oil taste compared to the dried seed? Note your observations.
CARDAMOM CHEMISTRY
Cardamom essential oil is extracted from the dried seeds, which contain between 4-8% essential oil, via hydrodistillation . The volatile oil can also be extracted via CO2 extraction (Supercritical CO2) and there appears to be growing interest in this method.
CO2 is considered a good technique for the production of flavors and fragrances as the scent is more similar to the starting material than the essential oil obtained via hydro or steam distillation and a variety of other products can be obtained via CO2. (Marongiu, et al. 2004)
The chemistry of the essential oil and the CO2 extract is very similar (Marongiu et al. 2004):
E/O Hydrodistillation chemistry:
Major components: 1,8 cineole 27.4%, a-terpinyl acetate 37.7%
Other principal components: linalol 6.6%, linalyl acetate 3.3%, sabinene 3%, limonene 3.5%, and a-terpineol 5%.
Minor and trace components include: b-pinene, myrcene, terpin-4-ol, geranyl acetate, neral, neryl acetate, geranyl acetate, terpinolene, limonene and several others.
CO2 extraction chemistry:
Major components: 1,8 cineole 21-21.4%, a-terpinyl acetate 42.3-44.2%,
Other principal components: linalol 5.4%, linalyl acetate 8.2-8.6%, sabinene 3.2-3.1%, limonene 3.7-5.4%, a-terpineol 2.8-3.2%
Minor and trace components: very similar to above hydrodistillation components.
The one thing noted about the CO2 extract that was interesting is that even though the CO2 extract is considered to be of better quality as far as its aroma, it deteriorates faster than the distilled essential oil.
NOTE:1,8 cineole syn. eucalyptol or cajeputol is an oxide and an ether. The name 1,8 refers to the fact that the oxygen atom is bonded to the first and eighth carbon atoms. 1,8 cineole is found in high concentrations in such essential oils as: Eucalyptus species, Laurus nobilis, Lavandula latifolia, Melaleuca quinquenervia, Myrtus communis, Rosmarinus officinalis ct. cineole and Elettaria cardamomum.
1,8 cineole possesses noted antiviral activity, antitussive effects (relieves coughs), bronchodilator effects (help open the bronchial tubes (airways) of the lungs, allowing more air to flow through them), mucolytic and mucociliary effects (mucolytics break down or dissolve mucus and thus facilitate the easier removal of these secretions from the respiratory tract by the ciliated epithelium, a process known as mucociliary clearance) and anti-inflammatory activity. 1,8 cineole also has positive effects on lung function parameters whether for the common cold or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. (Harris, 2007)
The alpha-terpinyl acetate is said to be responsible for the mildly herbaceous, sweet, spicy variation in aroma and mild spicy taste. (Parthasarathy, et al., 2008)
The Aroma of Cardamom: Psychological and Spiritual affects
The aroma of cardamon essential oil is warm-spicy, sweet, somewhat floral and camphoraceous. Cardamom’s aroma can be intoxicating. Its nature is to clear what is muddled, confused, weighted down and/or heavy. Clears the mind from over thinking, creating a peaceful place to make decisions. When combined with Ylang ylang, cardamom makes a highly beneficial oil for alleviating or reducing feelings of depression or self worthlessness. Cardamom can also have a rejuvenating effect on those who feel exhausted by the challenges of life or support altering a perception that ‘life is difficult’.
According to Pole (2006), cardamom is very high in sattva and prana. It regulates the flow of prana in the digestive tract which also means it regulates the flow of prana in how we digest our perceptions of the world and how we assimilate them.
WESTERN THERAPEUTIC APPLICATONS:
Cardamom has traditionally been used for its aphrodisiac, digestive, carminative and flavoring properties. Cardamon has a special affinity for the mucosa of the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts. (Wood)
Cardamom as both a herb and essential oil are indicated for: Colds, coughs, bronchitis, foggy thinking, chronic indigestion with bloating, nausea, belching, indigestion from stress/tension, upper respiratory tract infection, and nerve weakness.
Cardamom is considered to be a plant remedy traditionally used as an aromatic remedy and thus is indicated for colic, flatulence, congestive dyspepsia, and catarrh and bronchial congestion. (Mills and Bone)
AYURVEDA
In Ayurvedic medicine cardamom, known as Ela in Sanskrit, is utilized to stimulate digestion, alleviate intestinal spasms and pain, to stop coughing, to increase sexual potency, relieve hiccups, prevent nausea and to redirect the flow of vata downwards. The herb is considered to be very high in sattva and prana, regulating the flow of prana in the digestive tract, specifically samana and apana vayu. (Pole, 2006)
The herb and essential oil, according to Ayurveda, are: cooling, pungent, sweet, light and dry. (note: in western herbalism, cardamom is considered warming)
It helps to regulate samana vayu and direct apana vayu downwards and is thus indicated for nausea, vomiting, morning sickness, burping and acidity. (Lad and Frawley, 1986)
In Ayurvedic medicine cardamom is indicated for:
Weak digestion, bloating, flatulence, colic, intestinal pain and indigestion
Cough with mucus and asthma with wheezing
Clears avalambaka kapha and regulates vata (Pole, 2006)
Interesting tidbit: Cardamom is added to coffe in the Middle East as a flavor and to ameliorate the negative effects of caffeine. You can order “Shakti shots” from Melanie and Robert Sachs company Diamond Way Ayurveda at: http://www.diamondwayayurveda.com/catalog_i13036019.html?catId=280022
Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM)
In TCM, cardamom would be indicated for ‘damp’ conditions affecting assimilative functions (represented by the Spleen in TCM). Symptoms include abdominal and thoracic congestion (sometimes associated with cough and breathlessness), loss of appetite and loose stools. (Mills and Bones)
________________________________________________
Dosages of the herb:
Tea: 2-3 pods (remove seeds and steep in hot water, do not boil), 3 to 4 cups daily.
Traditionally, the typical dose of cardamom is 1.5 grams of the ground seeds per day.
As a digestive, a tea prepared from 1 teaspoon of freshly crushed cardamom seeds infused in 1 cup boiled water for 10-15 minutes has been used.
Tincture: 1 to 10ml of a 1:3@45% tincture (Pole)
Essential oil: Use in mixture with other oils or on its own at .5 to 15% dilution in carrier
Contraindications
Considered non-toxic when used appropriately.
_________________________________________________
Recipes
Soothing warm milk with cardamom
1/4 teaspoon cardamon seeds, powdered or just the seeds will do too!
1/8 teaspoon cinnamon powder
1 to 2 cups milk
Warm in sauce pan. Once warm, let stand for a few minutes and then pour into cup/s. Enjoy. Good right before bedtime especially for little ones. In the winter months, if a cold is coming on, you can add 1/8 – 1/4 tsp tumeric powder.
Enkindle the digestive fire: massage oil
1 ounce sesame oil
14 drops Cardamom Elettaria cardamomum
10 drops Fennel Foeniculum vulgare
7 drops Coriander Coriandrum sativum
Combine and apply on the reflex zones for digestion on the feet and abdominal massage along the colon. Drink tea below to support this blend.
Cardamom, Coriander, Fennel Tea (Recipe from Maya Tiwari’s Ayurveda: A life in balance) She writes that the three herbs included in this recipe combine to form the sweet, bitter, and pungent tastes. Coriander and fennel have a cooling tendency while cardamom is heating. This combination makes a good year-round brew. Excellent for balancing pitta.
1/4 tsp. cardamom seeds
1/4 tsp coriander seeds
1/4 tsp. fennel seeds
2 cups boiling water
1 tsp. maple syrup
Place seeds in warmed container (e.g. canning jar) and cover with boiling water. Steep for 5-10 minutes. Strain with fine mesh strainers and add maple syrup of unrefined brown sugar, if desired.
Respiratory health synergy for diffusor
18 drops Cardamom Elettaria cardamomum
6 drops Cinnamon leaf Cinnamomum zeylanicum
7 drops Thymus vulgaris ct. linalol or thymol
Autumn Cardamom Salt Scrub
Combine two cups of sea salt with:
14 drops Cardamom Elettaria cardamomum
7 drops Juniper berry Juniperus communis
10 drops Grapefruit Citrus paradisi
and enough Jojoba or Sesame oil to ‘wet’ the salts.
Stir together and place in jar to store.
Love love massage oil: for autumn self abhyanga
1 ounce organic jojoba
7 drops Ginger Zingiber officinale
4 drops Rose Rosa damascena
7 drops Cardamom Elettaria cardamomum
Al-Zuhair H, El-Sayeh B, Ameen H A, Al-Shoora H. Pharmacological studies of Cardamom oil in Animals. Pharmacological Research, Vol. 34, No. 1/2, 1996.
Dalby, A. Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2000.
Harris, B. 1,8 cineole – a component of choice for respiratory pathologies. International Journal of Clinical Aromatherapy 4:1, 2007.
Lad V and Frawley D. (1986). The Yoga of Herbs. Lotus Press.
Mills, S., and Bone, K. (2000). Principles and Practice of Phytotherapy. London: Churchill Livingstone.
Marongiu B, Piras A, and Porcedda S. Comparative Analysis of the Oil and Supercritical CO2 Extract of Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2004, 52, 6278-6282.
Prabhakaran Nair, KP. The Agronomy and Economy of Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum: The Queen of Spices. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India
Parthasarathy V A, Chempakam B, and Zachariah T J (2008). Chemistry of Spices. United Kingdom, CABI publisher.
Pole, S. (2006). Ayurvedic Medicine. Philadelphia, PA: Churchill Livingstone Elsevier.
Van Wyk, B., and Wink, M. (2004). Medicinal Plants of the World. Oregon: Timber Press.
Wood, M. (2008). The Earthwise Herbal: A complete guide to old world medicinal plants. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books.
This is a really interesting video although they are speaking in their native language. It is interesting to watch and observe the amount of work that goes into growing and harvesting cardamom.
Synergism in essential oils and aromatherapy
by Jade Shutes
If we stop to consider the plants from which we extract essential oils from, we come to the realization that a plant contains ‘a myriad of compounds that work synergistically to protect the plant from harm and carry out all the processes of its metabolism’. The plant does not isolate one constituent over another but rather utilizes its symphony of constituents to create its own intelligence, primal essence, and personality.
The exploration of essential oils by science is often the exploration of isolated compounds rather than whole essential oils. Harris, R. (2002) writes “currently there is an increasing trend towards identifying, isolating and using a single agent, drug, herb or essential oil to exert a specific and focused effect”. A core reason for this is that complex mixtures of compounds are difficult to evaluate scientifically.
Aromatherapists, on the other hand, believe that by working with whole, authentic, unrefined/unaltered essential oils a greater therapeutic activity is achieved versus utilizing individual isolated components or adulterated/synthetic essential oils. Aromatherapists also believe that utilizing blends or combinations of essential oils designed for a specific purpose enhances the therapeutic efficacy of the end product and indeed that a combination of essential oils are synergistic.
“The holistic perspective begins with the observation that the ‘sum is greater than the parts.’ Thus, the whole organism acts with an intelligence and direction that govern the parts.
The medicinal plant, unlike the drug, constitutes such a ‘whole organism’. The unique slurry of chemicals constitutes is the material expression, so to speak, of an intelligent being that has learned to survive in a challenging niche in the natural environment. It has been ‘standardized’ by Nature, and hardly needs to be tweaked by nosy human beings who think Nature is insufficient to the challenge.” Matthew Wood in The Earthwise Herbal
Synergistic, additive or antagonistic?
The concept of synergy is an important and valuable concept in aromatherapy. Synergism implies that the therapeutic benefit of a mixture of essential oils will be greater than the arithmetical sum of the actions of the mixtures parts. This could be understood as: 2 + 2 = 8. Synergism is observed when the effect of the combined substances is greater than the sum of the individual parts.
Before continuing with our discussion on synergy it is important to note that at times the combination of certain chemical components or essential oils can also have additive or antagonistic effects. An additive effect is observed when the combined effect is equal to the sum of the individual parts (1+2=3) An antagonistic effect is observed when the effect of one or both compounds is less when they are applied together than when individually applied (2+2=3). (1)
In the examples provided throughout the remaining discussion, synergy, antagonistic and additive effects will be briefly covered. Harris (2002) further elucidates that the concept of synergy can occur in aromatherapy via several possibilities. These possibilities include:
1. Synergy within the essential oil itself: This concept means that within a given essential oil, synergy occurs between major and minor constituents or between major components that act together to significantly increase the whole oil’s activity.
An example of this can be found in research by Onawunmi, et. al. on the “Antibacterial constituents in the essential oil of Cymbopogon citratus”. Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf., commonly known as lemon grass and used, over many years, for medicinal purposes in West Africa, produces a volatile oil on steam extraction of its leaves. The antibacterial properties of the essential oil have been studied. These activities are shown in two of the three main components of the oil identified through chromatographic and mass spectrometric methods. While the alpha-citral (geranial) and beta-citral (neral) components individually elicit antibacterial action on gram-negative and gram-positive organisms, the third component, myrcene, did not show observable antibacterial activity on its own. However, myrcene provided enhanced activities when mixed with either of the other two main components identified.(2)
2. Synergy between essential oils in a blend:This concept means that by combining two or more essential oils together, the aromatherapist creates a blend or product that is more effective than using only a single essential oil.
This category can reflect two potential pathways on synergism. These pathways include: synergy by therapeutic properties (e.g. an antispasmodic essential oil combined with another antispasmodic essential oil creates highly antispasmodic product) or synergy by chemical components (e.g. an essential oil rich in thymol and an essential oil rich in eugenol will create a highly effective antimicrobial product).
An example of essential oils enhancing the therapeutic property of each other is found in the combination of peppermint with caraway which is currently being marketed for relief of irritable bowel and dyspepsia. According to Harris, the authors of the study suggest that the spasmoyltic effects of caraway are enhanced by the spasmolytic effects of peppermint.
In a research paper on the antimicrobial activity of clove and rosemary oils, clove and rosemary were both shown to exhibit antimicrobial activity against a range of bacteria and fungi. A combination of clove and rosemary exerted additive antimicrobial effects against several strains of bacteria, a synergistic effect against Candida albicans but an antagonistic effect against Aspergillus niger. The authors concluded that this study may be useful for the combination of clove and rosemary essential oils for specific microorganisms in medicine and the food industry.(3)
Another research paper entitled “The anti-microbial efficacy of plant essential oil combinations and interactions with food ingredients” found that in many cases the result was an “additive effect”. The objective of the study was to evaluate the efficacy of plant essential oils in combination and to investigate the effect of food ingredients on their efficacy. The essential oils assessed in combination included basil (Ocimum basilicum), lemon balm (Melissa officinalis), marjoram (Origanum marjorana), oregano (Origanum vulgare), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), sage (Salvia triloba), and thyme (Thymus vulgaris). All the oregano combinations were additive against B. cereus. The following EO combinations also showed additive effects: oregano in combination with basil or thyme against E. coli and P. aeruginosa, oregano combined with marjoram against E. coli, and marjoram and thyme mixed with basil, rosemary or sage against L. monocytogenes. These results can be explained considering the efficacy of the main component.(4)
The German Commission E is a great reference on approved combinations of essential oils mostly for gastrointestinal complaints. These approved combinations have ‘met a vigorous set of criteria that include evidence of synergistic effects as well as evidence of the improved safety of the product, either by reducing the doe due to synergy or by negating or lessening potential side effects’. (Harris)
Some examples of approved combinations include:
1. Fixed Combinations of Anise oil, Fennel oil, and Caraway oil for Dyspeptic discomfort, especially with mild spasms of the gastrointestinal region, flatulence, and a sensation of fullness.
2. Fixed Combinations of Caraway oil and Fennel oil for Dyspeptic discomfort, especially with mild spasms in the gastrointestinal region, flatulence, and a sensation of fullness.
3. Fixed Combinations of Eucalyptus oil and Pine Needle oil for inhalation and external application in case of illnesses of the respiratory tract caused by a cold.
4. Fixed Combinations of Peppermint oil, Caraway oil, and Fennel oil for Dyspeptic discomfort, especially with mild spasms in the gastrointestinal region, flatulence, sensation of fullness.
(Reference: German Commission E at HerbalGram.org - http://cms.herbalgram.org/commissione/HerbIndex/approvedfixedcombinations.html)
As aromatherapists, we choose a combination of essential oils for a variety of reasons. For instance: in making a remedy for insomnia we would first explore the potential reasons for the insomnia and understand how the insomnia is manifesting in the individual. We may find that the individual is currently feeling ungrounded, scattered, overwhelmed. We can choose essential oils that are sedative (lavender, Roman chamomile) and also choose essential oils that can provide a sense of rootedness and strength. Such oils representing this quality are found in vetiver, cedarwood, and jatamansi. So our final blend could look something like: Lavender, Roman chamomile and Vetiver. This is synergy in action.
Another form of synergistic blending of essential oils can be seen in choosing essential oils based upon their chemistry and ability to mutually enhance one another. An example could look like:
Example of a blend designed for Chronic bronchitis and lowered immunity:
Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus): Rich in the oxide, 1,8 cineole. Expectorant and
respiratory stimulant
Rosemary ct. camphor (Rosmarinus officinalis): Rich in camphor and 1,8 cineole.
General expectorant and strong mucolytic activity
Peppermint (Mentha x piperita): Rich in the alcohol, menthol and ketone, menthone.
Opens up airways and enhances immune system
Thyme ct. thymol (Thymus vulgaris): Rich in phenol, thymol. Supports and enhances
immune system and exerts antimicrobial activity.
There are so many creative ways to utilize this idea of synergy through the combination of essential oils, experiment, enjoy, take notes, and get feedback from your clients, your family and yourself.
It may serve us to remember that essential oils are unique because they are able to affect us on all the levels of our being: mental, emotional, physical, spiritual, and energetic and that their wide range of benefits cannot always be reduced to their chemical components. Schnaubelt (2000) reminds us that aromatherapy is unique in and of itself and that “the more aromatherapy strives to be accepted by the medical profession, the more likely it is to copy its mistakes and failures”.
3. Synergy between essential oils and the base or carrier product
Aromatherapy products designed to be applied to the skin are most often placed in a carrier of some kind. This carrier can include: lotions, gels, creams, vegetable/nut/seed oils, salt, milk, honey, etc. When I was trained in aromatherapy by my mentor, Jan Kusmirek, he taught me that the base or carrier we placed our essential oils was just as important as the essential oils themselves. The idea was that by creating a therapeutic base, we could enhance the overall effectiveness of the blend/product.
Some research is supporting this idea that our carrier base can play a synergistic or antagonistic role. One such study showed that Ocimum gratissimum combined with aloe vera gel has greater therapeutic efficacy against acne conditions then either of the substances used alone. The study found that a 2% concentration of Ocimum gratissimum in 50% aloe vera gel aqueous dilution was optimal and that continuous treatment for not less than 7 days was recommended for the effective treatment of Acne vulgaris.(5)
Another study revealed the synergistic activity of German chamomile and aloe vera gel on delivering moisture to the skin. The study researched three essential oils: mandarin, German chamomile, and orange placed in a aqueous gel. The German chamomile gel provided greater hydration and a longer lasting effect when compared with the control and the other two essential oils. (6)
The combination of honey with a 2% dilution of the leaf essential oil of Ocimum gratissimum showed remarkable antibacterial activity which suggest that formulation of ocimum oil in honey could be invaluable as a topical antiseptic agent for wounds.
The use of an ointment inactivated Ocimum gratissimum’s antibacterial activity. (7)
When blending essential oils into a base product it is valuable to consider what your intention and desired result and how you may utilize base material to enhance the overall effectiveness of your essential oil blend. For instance, I could make a massage oil for aches and pains in the neck and shoulder area using just jojoba and a 10% dilution of essential oils including: birch (Betula lenta), peppermint (Mentha x piperita) and laurel (Laurus nobilis). Taking this a synergistic step further: instead of using jojoba I could create a therapeutic gel to hold the essential oils. Using a concentrated aloe vera gelly I could add Lavender and Roman chamomile hydrosols, St. Johns wort and Arnica herbal infusions, and then the 10% dilution of essential oils. This new blend has increased effectiveness due to the use of a number of products all enhancing one another and the overall purpose of the product.
Conclusion
The concept of synergy is of great value to the aromatherapist in understanding which essential oils to put together for a common purpose as well as why. With the above in mind, here are some tips for maximizing synergy potential when blending according to Harris, R. (2002):
1. Try to remain focused on the purpose of the blend: do not try to achieve too many goals within one formula
2. Select essential oils that are complementary to one another in terms of activity, direction and chemistry
3. Restrict the number of essential oils in the formula (between 3 and 7) to avoid diluting the active ingredients and giving doses below the therapeutic level
4. Ensure that the final blend remains high in active components
5. Select the base vehicle carefully
6. Apply at the dose appropriate for the application
For us as aromatherapists perhaps the most important aspect of maximizing synergy potential is our knowledge of and experience with each individual essential oil in our collection. There is not scientific evidence to support all our ideas or creations nor is this important to validate our ability to blend dynamic and highly effective blends/products. With our knowledge and experience, using the framework above and gaining feedback from our clients, we can feel confident in creating aromatherapeutic products.
“Modern Science and medicine are reductionist; that is to say, they reduce phenomena to their smallest pieces to gain understanding. This perspective ignores the possibility that there is a unified being, consciousness, identity pattern, or functional whole at the base of a human, animal, plant, or disease organism. Holism, in contrast, concerns itself with this underlying, unifying entity. – Matthew Wood “The Earthwise Herbal: A complete guide to New World medicinal plants”
REFERENCES
Harris, R. (2002). Synergism in the essential oil world. The International Journal of Aromatherapy,12(4), 179-185.
Schnaubelt, K. (2000). Functional Group Therapy. International Journal of Aromatherapy. 10(1/2):62-63.
1. Davidson, PM & Parish, ME. (1989). Methods for testing the efficacy of food antimicrobials. Food Technology, 43(1),148-155.
2. Onawunmi, GO, Yisak WA, Ogunlana EO. (1984). Antibacterial constituents in the essential oil of Cymbopogon citratus. J. Ethnopharmacol. Dec;12(3):279-86.
3. Fu, Y., Zu, Y, Chen, L, et al. 2007. Antimicrobial Activity of Clove and Rosemary Essential oils alone and in combination. Wiley InterScience DOI:10.1002/ptr.2179.
4. Gutierrez, Jorge and Barry-Ryan, Catherine and Bourke, Paula: The anti-microbial efficacy of plant essential oil combinations and interactions with food ingredients. International Journal of Food Microbiology, Vol, 124, Issue 1, 10 May 2008, Pages 91-97.
5. Orafidiya LO, Agbani EO, et. al. (2004) The effect of aloe vera gel on the anti-acne properties of the essential oil of Ocimum gratissium Linn leaf – a preliminary clinical investigation. The International Journal of Aromatherapy 14,15-21.
6. Monges, P, et al. (1994). Comparative in vivo study of the moisturizing properties of three gels containing essential oils: mandarin, german chamomile and orange. Nouv. Dermatol. 13:470-475.
7. Orafidiya LO, Oyedele AO, Shittu AO et al. The formulation of an effective topical antibacterial product containing Ocimum gratissimum leaf essential oil. Int J Aromatherapy. 2002; 12(1): 16±21.
One ingredient which is most plentiful in this fragrance is LOVE, I so adore the honey bee and everything about her. She is quite a magnificent creature. – Roxana Villa
A few weeks ago Roxana Villa, botanical perfumer and visual artist, sent me a little package containing her new natural botanical perfume: To Bee. As I opened the package I felt an immediate attraction to its contents. The little light pink container with an embossed bee seal on the top inspired. Upon opening, my sense of smell was drawn into the warming, spicy, floral, beeswax, honey aroma. I entered into a world of alchemy, transformation, and inspiration.
The To Bee solid perfume is greenish/brown/golden in color and quickly merges into the skin. Its initial application to my skin imparts a cinnamon floral beeswax earthly aroma. A few hours later it settles into a woody sweet honey exotic peacefulness.
I am not a botanical perfumer so finding the right words to fully describe this delightful symphony of aromas arising from Too Bee solid perfume is challenging although in my heart and behind closed eyes, I sense its layers and am drawn to its beauty.
To learn more about Roxana Villa and her new perfume, To Bee, please visit her blog at:
And be sure to check out the exquisite look book she designed at: here
For information regarding our giveaway for Roxana Villas To Bee collection which includes a solid and liquid version of Too Bee, visit our facebook page at: http://www.facebook.com/AromatherapySchool
Aromatherapy is one of the most exciting and burgeoning modes of herbalism today. It strikes me as a truly global discipline, different parts of the world contributing varied uses and methods of application for essential oils.
Arriving at the study of aromatherapy by way of herbalism, I have always enjoyed a fondness for the actual aromatic plants that produce essential oils. Looking at the aromatic plants seems like a good way to deepen understanding of and appreciation for essential oils. Studying herbs, from a traditional Chinese standpoint especially, can provide a wealth of ideas in terms of plant actions and treatment theory.
Chinese Medicine and Aromatic Plant Use
In Chinese medical theory, a logical, codified system exists for diagnosis and treatment of disease. Qi, Yin and Yang form the base of this system, Yin and Yang manifesting pathologically in concepts of cold and hot, deficiency and excess, damp and dry. “Qi” can be loosely translated in some contexts as “life force”, or in others as “energy”. Traditional Chinese Medicine, or TCM, encompasses a comprehensive medical theory as well as an extensive pharmacopoeia which is organized into 24 categories by action. Each herb is explained through its energetics as well as its actions and the particular organ/s it affects. According to Chinese herbal energetics, some herbs have ascending actions, while some descend; some invigorate while others sedate. Some herbs move to the body’s surface, or the extremities, while others penetrate deeply to affect organ functioning or even the most fundamental kidney Qi: that which provides us with vitality and ensures proper function of all other organs.
Many of the best-loved essential oils have source plants, or Asian variants, in the Chinese pharmacopoeia. It must be stressed that many ideas presented here are correlations between different species of plants within the same family. They share many compounds, but percentages and actual constituents vary. While aromatherapy may be unknown by name in China, centuries of using essential oils and aromatic plants provides us with a wealth of aromatic practice and tradition.
The following list gives an idea of just how many essential-oil producing plants are used in Chinese herbalism. Bear in mind that this list represents only the plants (as well as a few relatives) that produce oils used commonly in Western aromatherapy. There are many other aromatic plants and substances employed in TCM, especially in the Artemesia and Umbelliferae plant families. The plants below are catalogued in the order in which they appear in the 24 categories of the pharmacopeia, a well-organized arrangement that aids memorization.
Gui Zhi, Rou Gui, / Cinnamonum cassia (Cassia)
Sheng Jiang / Zingiber officinale (Ginger)
Bo He / Mentha hypocalx (Mint)
Jin Yin Hua/ Loniceria japonica (Honeysuckle)
Song Jie/ Pinus tabulaeformis (Pine)
Zi Hua Di Ding/ Viola yedoensis ( Viola/ Violet)
Huo Xiang/ Pogostemon cablin (Patchouli)
Bai Dou Kou/ Elettaria cardamomum (Cardamon)
Chen Pi/ Citrus reticulata (Mandarin)
Tan Xiang/ Santalum album (Sandalwood)
Xie Bai/ Allium macrostemon (Garlic)
Mei Gui Hua/ Rosa rugosa (Rose)
Ce Bai Ye, Bai Zi Ren / Biota orientalis (Arborvitae/ Cypress)
Ai Ye/ Artemesia argyi (Mugwort)
Ru Xiang/ Boswellia carterii (Frankincense)
Mo Yao/ Commiphora myrrha (Myrrh)
Ding Xiang/ Eugenia carophyllata (Clove)
Xiao Hui Xiang/ Foeniculum vulgare (Fennel)
Hu Jiao/ Piper nigrum (Black Pepper)
Dang Gui/ Angelica sinensis (Angelica)
An Xi Xiang/ Styrax benzoin (Benzoin)
Bing Pian/ Dryobalanops aromatica (Borneol)
Zhang Nao/ Cinnamomum camphora (Camphor)
Several Aromatic Herbs
According to the Chinese, cloves (Eugenia caryophyllata) act upon the kidneys, spleen and stomach. The function of the stomach is thought of similarly in both Chinese and Western medicine, while Chinese theories on the kidneys and spleen transcend the anatomical and physiological functions assigned to these organs in the West. Clove is said to warm the spleen and kidneys, and would be indicated in many “cold” or “deficient” genitourinary complaints, such as clear vaginal discharge or impotence. These pathologies would fall under the domain of the kidney. Other complaints, such as bloating, indigestion and diarrhea, could be helped by the clove’s warming action on the spleen.
Aromatherapy literature mentions clove essential oil as an aphrodisiac: in Chinese terms, such herbs are thought of as “warmers of kidney fire”. Clove fits in to the treatment of stomach ailments as a regulator of Qi, which might be thought of as a “carminative” in occidental terms. The stomach has a naturally descending course of movement, and when this movement becomes disrupted, or reversed, as in the case of vomiting, Qi- regulating herbs are prescribed. This could indicate the value of clove essential oil in treating hiccoughs, nausea, belching and vomiting, as well as many genitourinary ailments, particularly those of a chronic nature. In practice, herb and essential oil uses are not identical: with a dose of caution, herb uses can provide avenues for essential oil exploration.
An Asian variety of the Arborvitae, a member of the Cupressaceae family related to the plant Cupressus sempervirens which produces cypress oil used in aromatherapy, provides two herbs, each placed in different therapeutic categories. Bai Zi Ren, the seed of Biota orientalis, is thought to nourish the heart. Heart disharmonies or deficiencies give rise to symptoms such as insomnia, heart palpitations, anxiety or psychosis. There may be some application of cypress essential oil in treating these symptoms: Jeanne Rose mentions its usefulness in smoothing transitions and for the loss of friends, both of which could cause heart disharmonies of a physical or emotional nature. The leaf of the arborvitae, Ce Bai Ye, may be more pertinent in the cypress essential oil correlation. Its main actions are to arrest bleeding and to cool. These two functions often work hand in hand, for instance in the treatment of gastrointestinal or respiratory bleeding and infections. Ce Bai Ye is also used externally for trauma with bleeding , to promote healing, and to lessen the pain of burns. These indications tie in well with suggested uses for cypress oil in aromatherapy, for instance wound healing, respiratory infections, and as an astringent for conditions such as hemorrhoids.
As a rule, Chinese medicine categorizes pathologies according to temperature. Redness, swelling, and yellow phlegm or discharge all indicate a hot condition, which would point to a treatment with cooling herbs and oils. Cupressus sempervirens is an example of such an herb.
Frankincense, or Ru Xiang, has its place in the “Invigorate Blood” category of the pharmacopoeia. Herbs in this class are used primarily for physical trauma – they are the “first aid” or “kung fu” herbs. Chinese theory states that injuries resulting in swelling or contusions need to have the stagnation of energy and blood broken in order to heal. These herbs help to move the blood, to decrease bruising and swelling, and promote regeneration.
Beyond its functions of reducing swelling and pain, as well as “generating flesh”, frankincense is also said to move Qi and blood in both the trunk and extremities. It can “invigorate the channels”, meaning that it can travel superficially, and to the extremities. This makes frankincense useful in relaxing tight muscles and sinews, as well as guiding the actions of other herbs to the extremities. Its circulation-enhancing effects extend to the torso in the treatment of angina or chest pain. The herb’s alignment with the heart and liver make it useful in lowering anxiety and irritation, emotions governed by these respective organs. Centuries of use by many different cultures of this resin in a spiritual context would seem to support this. Frankincense essential oil is known in aromatherapy as a bronchodilator, able to restore lung capacity and lead to a more calm, balanced state.
Sandalwood, another highly regarded aromatic plant with a history of spiritual use, is placed in the “Regulate Qi” category, along with rose. The sandalwood used by the Chinese is the familiar Santalum album, while the rose species used commonly is Rosa rugosa, as opposed to aromatherapy’s Rosa centifolia and Rosa damascena.
Sandalwood acts on the lungs, according to Chinese medicine, and its energetics are warm, spicy and aromatic. This can be contrasted to rose, which acts upon the liver and heart, possessing sweet, bitter and warm energetics. The energetics of an herb help to determine the most appropriate treatment: while bitter herbs soothe the liver, sweet flavors nourish the spleen. Spicy and aromatic flavors are said to travel to the lungs, aiding them in their function of spreading the body’s Qi appropriately. Too much spiciness and warmth can aggravate an already angry liver, while too much bitterness and cold can damage an already spleen-deficient individual.
Essential oil of sandalwood would be an excellent choice for nearly any chest pain according to Chinese medicine, be it originating from the lungs or the heart. Angina pain is often explained as “Qi and blood stagnation”, and sandalwood’s regulating and dispersing actions can help these problems. Sandalwood inhaled enhances the flow and depth of the breath – this action has indicated its use for monks, asthmatics and depressives. A rub of sandalwood oil diluted into a carrier could calm nearly any trunk pain associated with the obstruction of Qi: indigestion as well as angina pain, in addition to many respiratory ailments, as aromatherapy literature suggests. I recommend a very sparing use of this essential oil, owing to its endangered status.
Rosa rugosa, or Mei Gui Hua, while not the same species as the plants which yield the valuable rose essential oil of aromatherapy, deserves attention in my opinion due to the fascinating indications with which it is attributed. While the constituents of this plant are sure to differ from the roses which are distilled and so coveted by aromatherapists, its aroma can attest to the similarity of their compounds.
The Chinese rose acts upon the organs/meridians of the spleen and liver. One of its most common uses is in the Chinese pathology of “liver attacking the spleen”, a common diagnosis. This pathology manifests in nausea, a bitter taste in the mouth, and fatigue. The “general” of the body, the liver in a governmental analogy, can become overactive and “insult” the spleen, which is already prone to deficiency, manifesting in poor memory/concentration, loose stools and fatigue. Rose can help re-establish harmony between these two organs. Its action can result in decreased digestive upsets, increased energy and mood, as well as improved menstrual symptoms. The liver, responsible for the storage of blood, governs the menstrual cycle closely. Depression, epigastric or flank fullness, breast tenderness and menstrual cramps all fall under the heading of “liver Qi stagnation”. Rose can help to regulate the Qi of the liver, relieving many menstrual complaints. Modern medical research has also pointed to the cholagogic actions of the rose.
Chinese use of Essential Oils
External use of essential oils is a well-established tradition among the Chinese. Some favorite essential oils in the many balms, liniments and plasters are cajeput (Melaleuca cajeputi), camphor (Cinnamomum camphora),cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum), clove (Eugenia caryophyllata), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus), lavender (Lavandula angustifolia), peppermint (Mentha x piperita) and wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens). These essential oils are used in generations-old formulas, many guarded by single families, which also employ exotic ingredients such as donkey skin or the mineral gypsum.
It has been difficult to identify the sources of these essential oils, as well as the ingredients of the carrier substances: this information is virtually never supplied in English on the packaging. A highly regarded liniment, Zheng Gui Shui, or “Manipulate Bone Water” lists only “Menthol, 16%” on its ingredient list. I have heard its praises sung in use for both chronic and acute ailments, and considering its efficacy, wish I could trust my nose to sniff out its guarded recipe.
Most balms and liniments have more specific indications than “Manipulate Bone Water”, or at least distinctions are made for traumatic injury versus arthritis, “warm” or “cool” conditions. Pak Fa Yeow, or “White Flower Medicine”, is a popular example of a cooling liniment. Nothing could be more evocative of a Hong Kong tram, the favored mode of transport of those in the know, than the aroma of Pak Fa Yeow. Hong Kong TV ads portray the liniment as a panacea, applied externally for wounds, sore muscles and joints, and inhaled as a remedy for respiratory and digestive upsets, even fainting! These claims can be backed up by its relatively extensive ingredient list. Aiding the active ingredients, wintergreen, camphor and menthol, are modest “inactive ingredients”: eucalyptus, peppermint, and lavender. All of these essential oils have properties that correspond to theoretical treatment principles of Chinese medicine.
Rheumatoid arthritis, an auto immune inflammation and degeneration of the joints, is attributed to the “pernicious influences” of heat, wind, and dampness. These principles, which can be readily observed in our environment, are thought to reside within the body as well, disharmony or disease being readily transposed onto this framework. Just as the earth can become saturated with water, giving rise to floods, dampness in the body can manifest in various swellings, edema, or excessive phlegm.
All of the essential oils in Pak Fa Yeow are especially volatile. Their high rate of evaporation, along with the particular constituents that the oils hold in common cause a cooling sensation when applied to the skin, such as the esters mentyl acetate and mentyl salicylate. It is probable that these oils have a similarly cooling action on the body as a whole. Quickly-evaporating oils tend to possess more drying qualities than more viscous oils. This drying action works along with the cooling properties of these oils to combat the “evil influences” responsible for many of our modern ills: dampness and heat.
Po Sum On, “Protect the Heart Oil”, is an example of a warming liniment. It is considerably thicker and darker in hue than the thin, clear white flower medicine. Its qualities are more tonifying, or nourishing, than Pak Fa Yeow, which is a more stimulating oil, despite its cooling properties. Po Sum On is used to treat angina pain, as its name suggests, but can also be used for osteoarthritis or joint pain of a cold or deficient nature. The main discernible differences in the oil are the inclusion of cinnamon essential oil, warming qualities of which are well-documented in aromatherapy literature, and the viscous nature of its unnamed carrier. Cinnamon, in addition to its warming, diaphoretic properties, is said to “invigorate the channels” in Chinese medicine, which points to its usefulness in circulatory problems, as well as for joint or extremity pain.
Considering essential oils in the context of Chinese herbalism can help broaden our understanding of each oil, while building the credibility aromatherapy deserves as a serious treatment modality but is often not granted. The fact that essential oils are well-suited to sensual, cosmetic, or psychological pursuits should enhance rather than detract from their medicinal applications, which are surely indisputable. Since the publishing of the first book on the therapeutic use of essential oils, Gattefossé’s Aromatherapy, research has plumbed pharmacopoeias of the Egyptian, Arabic, Indian, Greek and Chinese traditions. Contemporary Europeans have conducted laboratory experiments which have supported ancient indications. A merging of traditional knowledge with modern research has made aromatherapy what it has become: we now know which oils posses the most antibacterial and antifungal properties, in addition to the actions of these oils on the psyche.
The holistic approach that aromatherapy has taken considers plants’ actions on the psychological as well as corporeal bodies. The uplifting, calming, sedating and stimulating qualities of essential oils are well-known to aromatherapists. TCM can compliment and enhance our existing knowledge. The potential is there for aromatherapists to understand and utilize Chinese herbal energetics: aromatherapy literature is already approaching many of these Chinese theoretical concepts.
Bibliography
Bensky, Dan & Gamble, Andrew. Chinese Herbal Medicine Materia Medica. Seattle, WA: Eastland Press. 1993.
Cheng, Xinnong. Chinese Acupuncture and Moxibustion. Beijing: Foreign Language Press. 1993.
Gattefossé, René Maurice. Gattefossé’s Aromatherapy. Saffron Walden, England: C. W. Daniels . 1988.
Holmes, Peter. The Energetics of Western Herbs. Berkeley, CA: NatTrop Publishing. 1993.
Mabberly, D. J. . The Plant Book. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. 1997.
Rose, Jeanne. The Aromatherapy Book: Applications and Inhalations. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books. 1992. ____. Guide to [375] Essential Oils. San Francisco: Jeanne Rose Aromatherapy. 1997.
Tierra, Lesley and Michael. Chinese-Planetary Herbal Diagnosis.
Michael and Lesley Tierra: Santa Cruz, CA. 1988. Valnet, Dr. Jean. The Practice of Aromatherapy. Saffron Walden, England: C. W. Daniels. 1991.
About Laurel Redmon
Laurel Redmon has studied Acupuncture and Herbalism at Five Branches Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine and now attends the American College of Traditional Medicine in San Francisco this fall. She received a BA in Philosophy from Shimer College in Waukeegan, Illinois (her thesis entitled “The Alchemical Nature of Goethe’s Metamorphosis of Plants Theory”) and studied Alchemy with Jeremy Naydler in Oxford, England. She was a volunteer worker at NAHA’s first World of Aromatherapy Conference and Trade Show in San Francisco last September and is a member of the Editorial Staff of Scentsitivity. She has spent several years living in Hong Kong and has traveled extensively throughout Asia. Laurel now runs Red Sage Health in Madison Wisconsin. See her Classical Chinese Formulas here.
